A Glimpse into the Past: Unpacking the Diverse Forms of Hindu Marriage in Ancient India
For centuries, marriage in India has been more than just a union between two individuals; it has been a cornerstone of society, deeply rooted in tradition and scripture. While arranged marriages are often seen as the typical form of matrimony in India, historical texts reveal a far more nuanced picture. Ancient Hindu scriptures, dating back to 200 BCE to 900 CE, recognised no less than eight distinct types of marriage, each with its own customs and societal implications. Let’s delve into these fascinating forms of marriage that existed in ancient India.
The Eight Forms of Marriage:
Hindu scriptures categorised marriages into eight forms, broadly divided into approved and unapproved types. The first four were considered righteous forms of marriage, while the latter four were generally frowned upon, although they were acknowledged as existing within society.
Approved Forms of Marriage:
Brahma Vivaha: Considered the most esteemed form, Brahma Vivaha involved the father of the bride gifting his daughter to a groom who was learned and of good character. This was seen as a pure gift of the daughter.
Daiva Vivaha: In Daiva Vivaha, the bride was given to a priest as remuneration for his priestly services in a religious sacrifice. This form highlights the significance of religious duties and the respect accorded to priests in ancient society.
Arsha Vivaha: Arsha Vivaha was characterised by a symbolic payment from the groom to the bride’s family. This payment, often in the form of cattle, was not considered a bride price but rather a token exchange, signifying the groom’s commitment. In certain cases, the giving of the bride price was a sham, because it would originally have been given by the bride’s father to groom
Prajapatya Vivaha: Similar to Brahma Vivaha, Prajapatya Vivaha involved the gifting of the daughter, but with a stronger emphasis on the couple’s joint responsibility in fulfilling religious and social duties. The focus was on the couple embarking on a life of dharma together.
Unapproved Forms of Marriage:
These forms were generally criticised by ancient lawgivers but were nonetheless recognised as valid marriages in their time.
Gandharva Vivaha: This form stands out as a marriage based purely on mutual love and consent between the couple, without the need for parental approval or elaborate rituals. Often termed a “love marriage”, Gandharva Vivaha was based on the couple’s attraction and desire to be together. Famous legendary examples include King Dushyanta and Shakuntala, and Bhima and Hidimba, highlighting the romantic appeal of this form. To read more about this and its connection to live-in relationships, read our blog on the same.
Asura Vivaha: In stark contrast to the Brahma form, Asura Vivaha was marriage by purchase. The groom paid a bride-price to the bride’s family, effectively buying the bride. This form was criticised for treating marriage as a transaction.
Rakshasa Vivaha: Rakshasa Vivaha was a forceful abduction of the bride, often after defeating her family in battle or through violent means. This form, associated with the warrior class, was strongly condemned due to its violent and non-consensual nature.
Paishacha Vivaha: Considered the most despised form, Paishacha Vivaha involved the seduction or deception of a girl, often when she was intoxicated or unconscious. It was seen as morally reprehensible and exploitative.
Arranged vs. Love Marriage: A Historical Perspective
The ancient texts reveal a spectrum of marriage practices, ranging from highly arranged forms like Brahma Vivaha to love-based unions such as Gandharva Vivaha. While arranged marriages, particularly the Brahma form, were idealised, the existence of Gandharva Vivaha demonstrates that love marriages/live-in relationships are not a modern invention but have roots in ancient Indian society.
The Legacy of Arranged Marriage
Despite the recognition of various marriage types, arranged marriages, especially in their more structured forms, became deeply embedded in Indian society. They became associated with maintaining social hierarchies, family alliances, and community bonds. Even with modernisation and evolving societal norms, arranged marriages continue to be prevalent in India today. Contrary to popular belief, in modern Indian families, the opinions of the man and woman getting married are usually given serious thought.
Another aspect of this custom is that people start to think that who they marry is decided in advance. They believe their future is already planned, and that they and their partner are “meant to be”. They feel they cannot control who they marry and must accept what fate brings. This whole idea, which is common to some extent in Indian society, shows the many influences that push a person to marry someone they are destined to love. It is also thought to be a good thing that important decisions, like choosing a husband or wife, are made by responsible family members and relatives. However, if a couple are in love, they can still get married as long as they have followed the rules and customs of their community.
Conclusion
The eight forms of marriage outlined in ancient Hindu scriptures offer a fascinating insight into the diverse social customs and values of ancient India. They demonstrate that marriage was not a monolithic concept but encompassed a range of practices, from idealised arranged unions to marriages based on love and even force.
Additionally, India has a wide variety of mate selection processes, ranging from open to closed systems. In ancient times, this included marriage by capture among primitive tribes, as mentioned, to the more structured arranged marriages. Rules regarding who can marry whom vary significantly across regions. For example, in northern states, marriages between individuals from the same clan or related clans are often prohibited, while in southern states, cross-cousin marriages are common. Understanding these historical forms provides a richer context for appreciating the evolving landscape of marriage in India.
In today’s world, finding a compatible partner for a long-term relationship can be challenging. That’s why we invite you to download our app, Rematch, designed to help you find meaningful connections based on compatibility and shared values. Whether you are looking for a love-based union like Gandharva Vivaha or seeking a partner through more traditional means, Rematch is here to support your journey towards finding the perfect match. Download Rematch today and start your path to a fulfilling relationship.
References
Gupta, Giri Raj. “Love, Arranged Marriage, and the Indian Social Structure.” Journal of Comparative Family Studies, vol. 7, no. 1, 1976, pp. 75–85.
Sternbach, Ludwik. “A Sociological Study of the Forms of Marriage in Ancient India (A Résumé).” Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, vol. 22, no. 3/4, 1941, pp. 202–19.
